Ethical Leadership in the 21st Century Essay

Leadership is a critical component of the organization’s culture as leaders can create, maintain, or change culture. Thus, leadership is significant to establishing an ethically oriented culture. The idea that corporate leaders are accountable for organizational ethics is not a new one. In 1938, management theorist Chester I. Barnard described the executive’s role in â€Å"forming morals for others† in his book The Functions of the Executive. Barnard suggested that the purpose of developing organizational morals is a distinctive characteristic of executive work going far beyond the moral challenges faced by individuals usually. Besides superior technical skills, a high capability for responsibility, and an intricate personal morality, this task requires moral ingenuity in defining an organization’s code of ethics and instilling the basic attitudes that support it. According to a report from the Business Roundtable, a group of senior executives from major American corporations, leadership is crucial to organizational ethics. To achieve results, the Chief Executive Officer and those around the CEO need to be explicitly and strongly committed to ethical conduct, and give constant leadership in tending and mending the values of the organization. † (Business Roundtable, 1988). In surveys of practicing managers, honesty and competence appear as the most important qualities identified as essential to good leadership (Barry Z. Posner and William H. Schmidt, 1992, 33). This view was echoed by Vin Sarni, former CEO of PPG Industries, a large multinational firm, in a 1992 speech to Penn State business school students. Sarni said that the title CEO stands for Chief Ethics Officer, a statement that recognizes how important it is for the organization’s leader to set the firm’s ethical standards (Trevino and Nelson, 1995). If the organization’s leaders seem to care only concerning the short-term bottom line, employees rapidly get that message too. John G. Rangos, Sr. , the founder of Chambers Development Co. a waste management firm, demanded bottom-line results. When executives reported to him in 1990 that profits would fall short of projections, he is quoted to have said, â€Å"Go find the rest of it. † And so they did, until an outside audit in 1992 found that the company had erroneously reported strong profits in every year since 1985, though it was losing money all the time. Former employees say that, in the pursuit of growth, influenced numbers were tolerated, or perhaps even encouraged. One former employee who found discrepancies in 1988 was told, â€Å"This is how the game is played. (Trevino and Nelson, 1995) Leaders symbolize significant others in the organizational lives of employees, with considerable power qua behavior role models or simply power, in the meaning of being able to force others to carry out one’s own will. Leaders’ example and decisions affect not simply the employees who report to them, but also the stockholders, suppliers, customers, the community, the country, and even the world. Considerations of the ethical component in day-to-day decisions will set the tone for others who interrelate with the company. Thus, the image of the business leader will affect how others choose to deal with the company and will have continuing effects, as all managers and employees look to the highest level for their cues as to what is suitable. Top executives must live up to the ethical standards they are espousing and imply ethical behaviors in others. Leadership can make a difference in forming an ethical or unethical organizational culture. Work on ethical and unethical charismatic leaders also highlights the significance of the leader in the ethics equation. More particularly, charismatic leaders can be very effective leaders, yet they can vary in their ethical standards. Such differences determine the degree to which an organization builds an ethically oriented culture, the types of values followers will be exposed to, and the role models with whom employees will have their most direct personal contact (Howell and Avolino, 1992, 43-54). One way to pull together the contributions concerning how organizational culture is shaped and reinforced by leadership style is to understand organizational culture as ethical climate. One could also ask to what extent the moral maturity of organizational cultures or climates, controlling reference group types, or dominating ethics types are interdependent or interacting with leadership styles. One could also ask if unethical leadership styles encourage an unethical climate or vice versa, if the effect of unethical leadership is reinforced or counteracted by the organization’s ethical climate. Ethical dilemmas will frequently result in unethical behavior if an organization’s leadership furthers an immature, indistinct, or negative ethical climate. Such unethical behavior is, of course, not only furthered by an unethical climate, but also reproduces such an ethical climate, in a system feedback fashion, being contagious and self-reinforcing (or perhaps infuriating internal or external counter reactions). In such instances, an organization’s culture predisposes its members to perform unethically. Kent Druyvesteyn, former staff vice president, ethics, General Dynamics Corporation, made a similar point concerning leaders as ethical role models. People in leadership need to†¦set the tone by instance of their own conduct. We could have had all the workshops in the world. We could have even had Jesus and Moses and Mohamed and Buddha come and speak at our workshops. But, if after all of that, someone in a leadership position then behaved in a means which was differing to the standards that instance of misbehavior by a person in a leadership position would teach more than all the experts in the world (Trevino and Nelson, 1995). Clearly, the development of an ethical corporate culture depends on the tone set at the top. The earliest and most continuing normative formulation has underlined the responsibilities of business corporations to those affected by a company’s decisions and policies. From the beginning, it has been felt that business has fiduciary duties and compulsions of performance that extend beyond the company’s legal boundaries and economic goals. This view is identical to declaring that those who own the company should run it, or hire professional managers to run it, with an eye to the interests of others as well as their own. Therefore, business owners and managers are said to have a range of social responsibilities additionally to being responsible for the normal economic functions that one expects to find in a well-organized and well-run firm (Shaw, W. H. & Barry, V. 2004). To maintain and diminish this perspective, its advocates have drawn on various economic, political, ideological, and socio cultural sources, though rarely acknowledging them as such. The business mind easily transmogrified this hoary maxim into the corporate context by adopting for executives the mantle of â€Å"steward† of the public interest, â€Å"trustee† of business resources, and â€Å"corporate statesman† anticipated to manifest a broad social vision, while not refuting their company’s economic purpose and objectives (nor, it might be added, did it disturb their power). For the most part, these attributions of moral peerage were what might be called self-coronations or simple declaration, since no visible public selection process had elevated these corporate worthies to such vaunted peaks of public influence and function. Thus capable with self-anointed, regal-like responsibilities, corporate executives everywhere were advocated to adopt an â€Å"enlightened self-interest† perspective in approaching business decisions and originating corporate policies. To act otherwise was to risk serious inroads on business-as-usual. As the Committee for Economic Development put it, â€Å"The policy of enlightened self-interest is also based on the intention that if business does not accept a fair measure of responsibility for social improvement, the interests of the corporation might actually be jeopardized. . . . By acting on its own initiative, management preserves the flexibility needed to conduct the company’s affairs in a positive, efficient, and adaptive manner. † The report averred that looking beyond today’s bottom line would pay off in the long run by reducing social costs, dampening radical antibusiness protest, and attenuation the likelihood of government intervention into business affairs. certainly, the stability and public acceptance of business itself were said to be at risk: â€Å"Indiscriminate opposition to social change [by business] not simply jeopardizes the interest of the single corporation, but also affects negatively the interest all corporations have in maintaining a climate conducive to the effective functioning of the entire business system. (Frank Abrams, 1951, p. 33). Theorists have, generally, identified four broad areas of corporate responsibility: economic, legal, moral, and social. The major premise of the four areas is found in the basic nature of the corporation, which is a surreptitiously based, economic entity with jural standing, whose members are expected to make decisions that will have a noteworthy impact on a number of constituents (Brummer, 1991). Thinkers and researchers do not always agree that a corporation has all four responsibilities. Some do not consider that corporations have a moral responsibility; others believe that moral and social responsibilities come after economic and legal ones. The economic responsibilities of corporations have been distinct in many ways. Milton Freidman, for instance, states that the economic responsibility of a firm is distinct by the corporate intervening goal. To him, a corporate overriding goal is maximum returns to investors. As long as a corporation works on the way to achieving this goal, it is deemed economically responsible (Freidman, 1970). Based on the same philosophy, Manne (Manne and Wallich, 1972) argues that the intervening goal of the corporation is to maximize shareholders’ profits. In the majority of instances, maximizing investors’ returns would lead to utmost profits, and vice versa. Herbert Simon, on the other hand, disagrees with the perception of profit maximization and strongly argues for profit â€Å"satisfying. † He contends that because executives should respond to a number of other objectives, factors, and constraints, and must do so in the framework of what he calls â€Å"bounded rationality,† they in fact seek to reach a mere satisfactory level of profit. Whether maximization or satisfying, economic responsibility proponents consider that the number one responsibility of businesses is, first, its shareholders, and then other constituents. However, the dilemma concerning the issue of harmonizing the firm’s economic association with its social orientation still lingers. A step in the direction of easing the confusion was taken while an inclusive definition of corporate social responsibility (CSR) was developed. A four-part conceptualization of CSR integrated the idea that the corporation has not only economic and legal responsibilities but ethical and philanthropic responsibilities as well (Carroll, 1979). The major point here is that for social responsibility to be established as legitimate, it had to address the entire spectrum of compulsions that business has to society, including the most elemental economic. Organizational responsiveness to social needs had its unveiling when early industrialists reacted to the social problem that industrialization was seen to have caused. Early on, economists as well as philosophers began to argue regarding the role of business in society and regarding what responsibility business has to society. Later, social theorists for instance Bell (1976), Bellah (Bellah et al. , 1985), and Wolfe (1989) continued the debate and raised it to a higher level of concept. They were not just concerned about the responsibility of the corporation as a social body but even more concerned concerning how the corporate revolution has altered social life. A recent evaluation of the literature recognizes no less than nine meanings for social accountability. The nine meanings were categorized by Sethi (1997) into three categories: social obligation, social reaction, as well as social responsiveness. Social obligation entails that a corporation engages in communally responsible behavior when it follows a profit within the constraints of law as forced by society. Consequently legal behavior in pursuit of profit is a communally responsible behavior, and any behavior not legal is socially negligent. Proponents of social responsibility as social compulsion offer four primary arguments to support their views first, they retain that corporations are accountable to their shareholders. Consequently, managers have the responsibility to manage the corporation in a way that would exploit owners’ interests. Second, socially responsible projects such as social improvement programs must be determined by law and left to the contributions of private individuals. Consequently, the government, through legislation, is best equipped to determine the nature of social development programs and to comprehend social enhancements in society. Businesses contribute in this regard by paying taxes to the government that correctly determines how they should be allocated. Third, it is a violation of management contract to give out corporate profits for social improvement programs. These actions amount to taxation without representation, according to Friedman (1970). Management is taxing the shareholders by expenditure their money on activities, which does not contribute directly to maximizing shareholders’ interests. Additionally, because managers are not elected public officials, they are taking actions that affect society without being accountable to society. Fourth, many people who subscribe to this school of thought believe that social programs financed by corporate managers might work to the disadvantage of society. In this sense, financial costs of social activities can, eventually, cause the price of the company’s goods and services to increase, and customers would pay the bill.

Bel Canto Historical Analysis

Historical Analysis In Ann Patchett’s Bel Canto, the setting is reflected off of the Lima Crisis, otherwise known as the Japanese embassy hostage crisis, which began on December 17, 1996. Bel Canto is a story on the events that happen in the house of a South American country’s vice president. It portrays the relationships of the characters and their feelings toward one another as well as explains the hostage situation. In the Japanese embassy hostage crisis, similar events took place, such as the actual overtake of a mansion which contained high-ranking military officials and others of a high social standing.Both settings deal with the releasing of hostages in exchange for demands that were never met, which led to the resolution of both the Lima crisis and Patchett’s Bel Canto. Bel Canto reflects the historical Japanese embassy hostage crisis, although Bel Canto has a third person omniscient point of view of the occurrences on the inside of the mansion. Bel Canto imitates the incidences of the Japanese embassy hostage crisis.The Japanese embassy hostage crisis was a 126 day hostage crisis where members of a revolutionary movement known as the Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement had taken over 600 hostages, a decent amount of which were high ranked military officials and other well-known ambassadors. The MRTA, led by Nestor Cerpa, took over the highly fortified residence of the Japanese ambassador. Cerpa proclaimed that he would release any of his hostages who weren’t involved with the Peruvian government, and they did so. The MRTA eventually release all the captives except 72 men.The original plan of this takeover was to change the ways of the government. In Bel Canto, although the terrorists originally came to take the president, they were a rebellious group from the country and wanted changes in the government. The rebels demanded a few things in return for the safety of the hostages. They requested â€Å"The release of their membe rs from prison; a revision of the government’s neoliberal free market reforms, and they protested against the cruel and inhumane conditions of Peru’s jails† (Japanese embassy hostage crisis).In Bel Canto, the rebels have demands as well: ‘The terrorists having no chance to get what they came for, decided to take something else instead, something they never in their lives knew they wanted until they crouched in the low, dark shaft of the air-conditioning vents: opera. They decided to take that very thing for which Mr. Hosakawa lived. ‘(71). Both terrorists wanted demands out of their seizures of the mansions. In both Bel Canto and in the Japanese crisis, a Red Cross official was the ‘negotiator. He attempted to setup a barter system to which the terrorists would get supplies so long as they give hostages back in return. In the Japanese crisis, Luis Cipriani had worked on getting a deal that would allow the terrorists to be let go into Cuba as exi les. This negotiation failed, as did some of the consultations from Bel Canto. Messner, the negotiator, attempts to make several negotiations with the terrorists, throughout the novel. Although both mediators do try to work the situations out with the rebels, they are not able to meet the standards of the negotiations.In the end of both Bel Canto and the Japanese embassy hostage crisis, the terrorists were killed. They were not done in the same fashion, although the hostages were saved. In Bel Canto, the terrorists allow the hostages to be outside, and one day while they are together, a group of government troops come and shoot all the insurgents, as well as Hosokawa. In the Japanese crisis, a military assault overwhelmed the rebels and forced them to either surrender or be shot and killed. Bel Canto is very much reflected upon the happenings of the Japanese embassy hostage crisis.The similarities of the negotiations between the outside world and the mansions, the motives for invasi on, and the format of how the situations end are all closely related. The book may not have total accuracy of the Lima crisis, although the internal view of the occurrences in the mansion provide a different side of the hostage situation. Works Cited Japanese embassy hostage crisis. † Wikipedia. Wikipedia. Web. 23 Jan. 2013. . Patchett, Ann. Bel Canto. 2005 ed. New York: HarperCollins, 2001. Print.

No topic Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 8

No topic - Term Paper Example The nurse does not consider Mrs. J’s subjective perceptions and does not hear her complaints. The nurse is convinced that Mrs. J. exaggerates her pain and may develop an anesthetic addiction. In order to solve the problem, both the nursing assistant and the chief nurse must collect all information regarding the physical state of the patient, her diagnosis and possible complications. If possible, the patient will have to pass a test, whose results will create the basis for the development of a more specific pain management strategy. Additionally, the department must test the efficiency and validity of all technologies in Mrs. J’s room. It may happen that the results it shows regarding Mrs. J’s health are not objective. The desired result is providing comfort in Mrs. J.’s relations with nurses and alleviating her pain, without causing any care disruptions or damaging her health (e.g., through the development of anesthetic addiction). Although it will take some time to complete additional tests, this is the best solution to the discussed problem. Nurses need to ensure that all technologies operate appropriately and that additional doses of medications will not damage the patient’s

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PEST analysis, (Political) in the UK Speech or Presentation

PEST analysis, (Political) in the UK - Speech or Presentation Example Individual making investment will be able to claim income tax reduction as an income tax relief. In the western world, the corporate tax rate in Britain is believed to become one of the lowest tax rates. Corporate tax rate has been dropping from 34% in 1990 to 24% in 2013 (Neville 2013). The introduction of new tax relief will lead to further reduction from 24% in 2013 to 21% in 2014. The second political factor is labour law. Currently the UK government have introduced regulations that will implement key changes to the obligations of redundancy collective consultation. This was approved in 6th April, 2014 and there would be publication of new Acas guidance for handling redundancy consultation (lorber & Novitz 2012). The third one is the environmental law. There have been implementations on environment regulations known as extended producer responsibility. These regulations are derived from European legislation and ensure that producers of particular products take full responsibility of reprocessing, recycling, and finance treatment of these items. The other political factor is trade restrictions which are inform of sanctions in the UK. The Sanction measures that have been applied include arms embargoes and several other trade control restrictions. Arms embargoes prohibit exportation of dual-use-items-goods and weaponry which have both military and civil use (Kenner 2011). The last political factor is technology. According to internet economy of UK, internet has allowed access to any information transforming life in UK. Technology use in UK has increase dramatically as evident in the use of smart phones. The rapid growth in tables, data â€Å"dongles†, and smart phone has enabled users to perform a lot of task both at home and in the office (Kenner 2011). The use of smart phone has doubled between 2008 and 2010 as shown

Vigilant IT professionals Wk 7 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Vigilant IT professionals Wk 7 - Essay Example The general responsibilities include managing information technology and computer systems; ensuring that the technology is smoothly accessible and effectively equipped with both hardware and software systems; and being able to regularly monitor and maintain technology to ensure maximized accessibility and application (Information Technology Manager, 2005). The primary concern therefore for the IT manager is sustaining effective operation of the computer system and applications within an organization at maximum ability and at the minimum cost. Aside from keeping abreast with the latest technological developments that concern the organization’s upkeep of both hardware and software system, the task of the IT manager includes identifying risks and threats of security and ensuring that the organization’s data and information system would not be compromised. The IT manager must be able to detect vulnerabilities and threats and be able to address security issues, breach of confidentiality and other information-related concerns at the soonest possible time with ease, high competence, and exemplary use of sensory, cognitive and problem-solving skills. This is a type of position that one looks forward to holding in the near future. The opportunities open for an IT manager are vast and the nature of the work is appropriately challenging due to the fast pace of technological advancement. From the information contained in the Occupational Outlook Handbook for Computer and Information Systems Managers the compensation offered is relatively high with â€Å"the median annual wage of computer and information systems managers (amounting to) $115,780 in May 2010† (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2012, p. 1), or about $55.67 per hour. Likewise, the job outlook is positive with an indicated growth rate of 18% for the years 2010 up to 2012. Likewise, as disclosed, â€Å"growth will be driven by organizations upgrading their IT systems and switching to

Discuss the Ways in which Cohesion and Coherence Contribute to Making Essay

Discuss the Ways in which Cohesion and Coherence Contribute to Making Meaning in texts - Essay Example This paper will explain the concept of cohesion in greater detail, and will apply the concepts introduced to two different speeches, one from John Kerry and one from George W. Bush. Discussion According to Cutting (2008), cohesion may take either the form of grammatical cohesion or lexical cohesion. In grammatical cohesion, a referring expression links with another referring expression which is cohesive with â€Å"the previous mention of the referent in the text† (Cutting, 2008). In other words, certain words, known and endophora, refer back to certain other words – the word â€Å"them† will refer back to an earlier noun, and the word â€Å"this† will refer back to an earlier sentence. Further, endophora may be associative, which means that the context in which a word is used tells the listener or reader the meaning of that word. Anaphora means a word which refers to the previous text, and cataphora refers to following text (Cutting, 2008). Moreover, Kerry uses anaphora much more than Bush does, with 7 different anaphoric sentences, compared to 3 different anaphoric sentences in Bush’s speech. ... Basically, grammatical cohesion is a type of short-hand, where short words are used to refer back to other words, and ambiguous words are defined by their context. Further, endophora may be contrasted with exophora, which refers to outside context and not what occurred in the text – the listener knows the meaning of the word through its context (Cutting, 2008). Exophora reference is a cohesion concept that both George W. Bush and John Kerry use extensively. Both men used exophora 8 different times in the speeches. However, while much of John Kerry’s use of exophoric terms are some variation of â€Å"you,† â€Å"we,† â€Å"our† and â€Å"us,† with Bush, he doesn’t use these same terms. He uses the word â€Å"we’ve† in three different sentences – 16 to 18 – but, other than this, the terms that Bush uses which are exophoric are â€Å"lofty† sentences such as â€Å"freedom† in sentence 12, â€Å"l iberty† in sentence 13, and â€Å"great land† in sentence 23, as well as the term â€Å"our alliances† in sentence 10. Hoey (1991) states that cohesion can further be broken up into five classes – conjunction, reference, substitution, ellipsis (all part of grammatical cohesion) and lexical cohesion. Conjunctions are words which mark a semantic relationship to a previous sentence. These words might include â€Å"however,† which signifies that the coming sentence is an exception to the rule of the previous sentence, or â€Å"alternatively,† which means that the coming sentence presents an alternative from the previous sentence. Reference is a semantic relation and the identity of the word can be ascertained by the previous text – pronouns such as â€Å"them† and â€Å"this† in the examples above would be an example of a reference. Substitution refers

History in the 21st Century Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

History in the 21st Century - Term Paper Example The different approaches applied when studying the subject create uniqueness throughout the different historical eras. This essay will therefore investigate various historical approaches in the 20th century. The essay will also investigate the implication of the different approaches in history to scholars. Similar to ancient and medieval history, the twentieth history had its unique approach and method. Marxism is a historical approach of the twentieth century that was introduced by Marx. Through his philosophy, Marx had many followers who believed that that the existence of any society is determined by relationship between individuals and not the personal characteristic of each member of the society. Marxism historical approach was introduced at the height of conflict between capitalism and communism. According to Marx, capitalism was unsustainable and it would soon be overtaken by communism. Marxist considered the economy to be a key player in the determination of events or differe nt approaches taken by life. Introducing the notion of economy was an appropriate step that the Marxist took to study the subject. This is because the economy is a major determinant of social life and societies. The economic condition of a given community determines the different approaches towards life that the communities take for their own interest. The need to maintain economic stability also determines the different measurers that are taken by a community to protect its interest. Although communism might be a better economic approach, it is unsustainable and hence the predictions made by the Marxist are not realistic. Economic sustainability is realized from sustainable economic principles. Such economy is more likely to be realized from a capitalist economy than from a communist economy. This indicates that the predictions made by the Marxists are unrealistic and unreliable in the long-term. The new social history is the most recent branch of history. In this technique, histor ians apply cultural approaches to study political history of a given society. Culture is the overall collection of a community’s way of life and beliefs. Communities preserve their culture by passing it from generation to generation. The culture of a given society therefore defines a form of investment that a society makes over a long duration. Culture is therefore as good basis that historians can rely on to determined or investigate the political history of a certain community. The approach taken by the new social history to study the political history of a society is an appropriate approach since it utilizes the culture of a society1. Multiculturalism is more of an ideology than a historical approach. Scholars, who apply this approach in their investigations, consider the existence of cultural institutions. The institutionalization of different communities is the classification of different communities based on their common interests. Historians who study the society throu gh multiculturalists approach study the subject by analyzing the different classes of the society such as businesses, cities, nations and institutions. People have a tendency of forming groups that contain people with a common interest. The different groups or societies determine people way of life and their different approach towards life. Although this approach enables history scholars to study the general characteristic of a community, it does not give specific or detailed information about a community. The ap

Analysis of Diane Arbu's Identical Twins Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Analysis of Diane Arbu's Identical Twins - Essay Example The paper states that Diane Arbus shot her photographs primarily using the Rolleiflex medium format that contained twin lens reflex. These features of the lens provided her photographs with features that were distinct. For instance, most of her photographs, including the â€Å"identical twin,† have waist level viewfinder as well as the aspect of the square ratio. The application and perfect adoption of the techniques of applying the viewfinders facilitated Arbus to connect with her subject perfectly, and beyond the stands of normal eye level viewfinders were able to synchronize the intended photograph. The photograph, identical twins portray the images of two young girls namely Colleen and Cathleen Wade. These two girls are equally portrayed standing side by side juxtaposed to each other with the aim of reviling their underlying identity. Moreover, the girls are addressed in similar attires of matching corduroy dresses with white lase around their necks and about their wrists. Additionally, the photograph clearly indicates that both girls have white headbands about their heads trapping their dark hair. Notably, they are coherently staring at the camera with one of them posing with a slight slime about her face while the other showing a slight indication of sadness. The indicated nature of state of each girl’s face depicts a state of parallelism among these twins. Furthermore, the parallelism may be as well been defined, or portrayed by the haunting nature of the portrait. In summary, it may be certain to say or note that the photograph reveals the photographer’s vision. Some of the photograph scholars had once noted that Arbus was suffering from identity issues. According to Patricia Bosworth, a biographer, Arbus in her career had ever been involved with the question of identifying her identity by comparing herself with other. She once had wanted to determine who she was and who others were. Therefore, the photograph of the twin image is a clear expression that cruxes the vision Arbus ever had. Alternatively, one may argue that Arbus was representing the content of the photograph in the form of normality being freakishness, and freakishness being normality (Krauss 12). According to Arbus, this photograph, of identical twins, was photographed at their tender age of seven years old each. In addition, it is as well apparent to note that the photograph was taken in a Christmas party, the party that was organized for twins and triplets. Commenting on the photograph, the father of these girls once commented that they had never thought such worst likeness of twins ever existed since according to him, they have never seen such likeness among any identical twin he has ever seen. It is worth noting that the photograph of the twins has as well inspired other artworks. For example, Stanley Kubrick reflects the elements of this photograph in the film â€Å"The Shinning†. Two identical twin sisters, with identical pose, are featured in this film. Most of Arbus’ artistic ideas are also reflected in a piece of artwork known as â€Å"Gummo† by Harmony Korine. The artistic elements represented by Arbus in the â€Å"Identical twins† photograph are also featured in a television series episode named â€Å"The Old and The Restless†. About the contemporary photographic work, Arbus is considered as a charitable photographer, in the sense that her work unconventionally related to the subject matter of portraits she presented in her collection. Most of Arbus’ photographs, including â€Å"Identical twins,† portray people or society as living unusual lives, and the same notion was accepted by most societies. Therefore, her photographs depicted what could have been supposed to be the real person. This makes her

Finance and accounting Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Finance and accounting - Assignment Example In contrast, the income distribution for women is highly skewed towards higher income range. The median for men’s income is 2217.5 while the media for women’s income is 1437.5. On the other hand, the mean for men’s income is 2635.95 and the mean for women’s income is 1417 signalling a large difference in income between both groups. Men as well as women see highest income frequency for incomes between 1500 and 2000. In the case of men’s income, the outliers are present beyond the income level of 7000. In the case of women’s income, the only outlier is in the 3500 to 4000 range. Men’s income is more affected by outliers as expressed by the standard deviation of 1701.16 while women’s income is not as deeply affected by outliers as expressed by the standard deviation of 751.55 (Freeman et al., 2007). Outliers for men’s and women’s income distribution can be dealt with by employing statistical corrections such as by converting the data to a normal distribution. Moreover, the outliers in the case of men can be seen as aberrations from the normal distribution of wealth and can be neglected altogether given the fact that these deviations affect the population sample’s credibility. The outliers are not only placed well away from the regular distribution but present an insignificant proportion of the overall sample set. It could be reasoned that these samples originate from clients who do not otherwise fit into the socio-economic group being studied. The same is true of women’s income. The aberration results in small frequency counts that are placed well above the regular income distribution pattern. Similar to the men’s case, the outliers in the case of women can be ignored to produce better results. The answers for part (a) and part(b) tend to differ from each other based on the use of a normal distribution curve and the use of the actual sample. Using the

Decade of Corporate Greed Essay Example for Free

Decade of Corporate Greed Essay Ascended in the 1980’s he reinvented Republican policies that favored deregulation and the growth of business in America. These Ideas markedly opposed the views of the governmental interventionist policies of the 1960’s and 70’s with these ideas Reagan hoped to decrease government Involvement and heavy taxes. With these tax cuts Reagan’s thinking was that many new businesses would spawn and that it would have a trickledown effect by not only empowering businesses to grow and hire more people which in the end would benefit all from those on top in the corporate world all the way down to the lowest person in the company in which everyone benefits. This was welcome news not only to the Republicans but also the â€Å"lunch bucket democrats† who were working class democrats who predecessor Jimmy Carter of whom they thought they were ignored by. As a result of this many government services were slashed and created ideas of the government being the problem. With this many republicans encouraged individuals to do good for themselves for the government would not do this for them. With this encouragement of business growth and economic prosperity for as many people as possible individualism became a way of life in the 1980’s. The acquisition of wealth and indicators of it really helped to drive this decade in the 1980’s where it seemed most important to acquire as much â€Å"material† goods as possible. These ideas were also shown in the pop culture world as the artist Madonna made a hit song in the 80’s called â€Å"material girl† a song of the times basically about greed and gaining as material things as you possibly could with no shame of this greed. Also Gordon Gekko the fictional business tycoon in the film â€Å"Wall Street† stands up at board meeting to stress and states â€Å"Greed is good†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Greed will not only fix this malfunctioning corporation called Teldar paper, but also the other malfunctioning corporation called the U. S. of A. † There were even excesses being taken in sports, as Pete Rose of the Cincinnati Reds had greed of singles, doubles and stolen bases, also greed in gambling cost him his spot in Major League Baseball. It was also in this decade baseball experienced â€Å"free agency† destroying loyalties and players selling themselves to the highest bidder as player contracts doubled from just the decade before. Once these Republican policies had trickled down to popular culture it almost seemed to validate this style of politics, it seemed as if the Republicans ascendance to power had spawned this culture and decade of greed that was so actively embraced by the American public. With this these politicians simply stated that they were just acting in accordance to what the public’s wishes were. With this success that Reagan had in the 80’s America had once again began to reassert itself on the world stage after a challenging decade of struggling in the 1970’s. Reagan is thought to be responsible also for the victory in the cold war that had lasted for decades before his term. The new thinking in the 80’s was not that this was greed but more of what the Republicans called prosperity and success. Some of the negatives of these changes were Reagan deregulated everything which in effect destroyed competition and this created oligopolies. Some examples of these are in the airline industry he deregulated the industry causing every airline in the country, except 2 to become bankrupt, as the deregulation in the broadcast industry resulted in just a few major players like Disney and Clear Channel dominating the playing field. As for under the Reagan administration money in politics became more strong then ever and that still holds true today in the world of politics for it seems like we no longer have elections, we more like have auctions for where it seems the candidate who has the most money to spend on getting their name out is usually the one who wins in these political battles, especially for the Presidency. What this does now and back then in the 80’s where it started is a corporation who might want certain laws or tax breaks passed to better help their needs funds that candidate to get elected and then in turn expects them favors to be returned when that candidate is elected. This new concentration of wealth created a whole new class of millionaires, however on the downside for every millionaire there were several hundred homeless people. With this came more negativity that came with the corporate greed of the 80’s. For these people who became homeless and poor due to these millionaires greed were blamed for dragging down the economy by Republican politicians and their mouthpieces in the media, while the truth we found out later is that indeed it was these rich people who were ripping us off and actually were responsible for dragging down the economy. Going as far to blaming the poor the city of Los Angeles installed a fingerprint system to guard against welfare fraud that cost the city and hardworking tax payers 30 million dollars, and for all of this it caught one cheater. While at the same time â€Å"White collar† crime was rising and costing us more than street crime cost, also doing more damage and arguably causing more deaths. Reagan also had a deregulation of the savings and loans industry which was a total debacle and ended up costing Americans 500 billion dollars which is part of the still current banking problem that is going on today. Unfortunately Reagan also began the practice of sending American manufacturing jobs overseas, another move that made the rich even more rich and greedy and made the poor have even less than they did before. Despite all these negatives it can be argued that Ronald Reagan was the most important and influential President of the last 60 years, loved by the Republicans and loathed by the liberals. Reagan turned half a century of political and economic orthodoxy and turned it on its head. It can be argued that he turned those who were Roosevelt democrats. So whether you loved or hated Reagan there is no doubt that administration and the greed of 80’s is still alive today. My though would be if your rich, you like the corporate greed and excessiveness that took place in the 80’s, however if you are poor you are wondering why this turned out like it did.

Automation in IT Industry: Uses and Benefits

Automation in IT Industry: Uses and Benefits Automate IT processes Abstract Here is the procedure to analyzing the errors or bugs related to the Project in the IT industry using the automation tools. From this analysis we are able to find the processes of errors caused due to soundness or for syntactical errors Due to this errors the organization is non profitable or losing its profit sales it also lead to downfall of the shareholder values What are the reasons for IT process Automation? This Analysis is very important to the each and every organization to discuss within the company in all aspects of benefits that are achieved through the Automation, key value characteristics should be considered throughout the workflow of automation, and it should be challenged experience to the automation process Overview Now a days IT industry is more Complex than before. Cumulating the number of Apps, Servers , composite scope of Systems, and huge Records: all of this need to be maintained And managed , which is very big difficult task for IT industry in all the aspects like money, manpower.etc.. So Organizations of different Size is looking for an alternative Source which is related to maintain it with more efficiently. In almost all Societies records could be preserved trustworthy and safely. This are all leads to the customized applications As the size of the data increase it implies to the increase on organization administration software and computerization to preserve a reliability in the IT organization with additional professionally to influence on Manpower and increase awareness and retaining of the problematic finish. Monitoring, Ticketing, and change and configuration management are some of the categories for system management product Introduction Why Automation It is used to Save time and manpower it is used to increase efficiency Decrease Mean Time to Repair and increase Mean Biome Between failures man can make a mistake but machine cannot All size of Organizations (Small and Big) are processing there work flow through Automation. It is the best Suitable techniques to increase the Business in all the fields For every Societies a special team of members is organized to maintain the Automation Process This shows the Automation in IT Industry The above scenario shows the infrastructure of IT industry necessary steps to be take part in the growth of Organization Aim To deliver a systematic management solution to the client to procedure with the smooth workflow of an Application Intentions 1. Systematizing the remediation of events and warnings Many of the IT industry have Adopted the advanced technology to have a keen observation on the performance of their growing in IT infrastructures compare to the Other orginisation.There will be a quick alert is produced when any incidents occurred to the infrastructure. When such incidents happened there will automatic solution then and there itself. In IT Automation process, you can automate the remediation of many incidents occurred through: self-initiated, automatic work flow can be done from monitoring tools or manual operator automatic workflow execution through the data center is more faster than the manual process Automatic remediation, like complex servers and infrastructures can be balanced through network load With this system IT infrastructures is secure and safe 2. Authorizing forefront IT professionals to determine additional events Research have been declared that in many of the organizations half of the incident occurred in the infrastructure are estimated beyond the frontline to the notice of the network administrators and management. This incident result to the less productivity and a conference calls to resolve this issue in the personal time as nights, and weekends It Automation process is used to help in transformation of manual big data effect in to sequence and standardized workflows. When an incident happened the workflow automatically imitated compile and execute to the better efficiency. A trigger is automatically starts when the estimated cross the frontline to the knowledge of level 3 administrator 3. Reducing alert abundances There is more chance of Alert happens when IT systems staff concentrate with the alert. They are more active in the alert due to lack the data to know which alert is more active and which is more and just noise. Even a little sound of alert makes the IT staff to be more productive and focus on the critical issue to reduce the noise. Like this IT process automatic initiated to monitor and ticketing product and reaches the frontline operator to take quick action on the alert. The following are the examples for the automation alert in management process: à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ·Monitoring tool to identify the incident and make a trigger. à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ · To make the workflow automatically when the trigger and take the appropriate action from the noise alert and create the ticket for the necessary action. Using the trigger frontline operator produce a ticket to resolve the action in this scenario work load is decreased by using this technology. 4. Create a reliable, repeatable procedure for coordinating modification Now a days IT Organizations is supporting large number of applications, servers and devices, as this number can rapidly grow. Among this some of the Organizations have a well format of documentation and consistently change in the process and some does not have a will documentation, and also produce without updating and changes of the previous due to the three will be consistently raise of issue which feel very difficult for frontline operators to resolve and reactive on the productive issue. For the above aspect IT process automation gives the significant and automatic changes in the configuration management process. The set of automation process is imitated by the IT system administrator to check the workflow of application and servers for the status and trigger, network and automation process for updating. This changes is updated to the thousands of application through the servers, create a document according to the requirements. It process tool is used to improve the overall cost efficiency for configuration management previously manual uses automation process for end-to-end changes in the system management product. This lead to the compact and responsiveness. Observing the previous action in the IT automation helps you to react more efficiently for changes in the business needs it also reduce the time of deployment of new infrastructure? An Organization can see a 70 percent of reduction for the new infrastructure 5. Develop relations between ITIL event administration and difficult management procedure It operators goes to a fire-fighting mode due to continuous receiving and resolving hundreds and thousands of alerts a day. They have to react as quickly as possible to the incident and respond to that alert to maintain critical application uptime. However ticket is not generated as soon as the relevant troubleshooting and resolving the alert. IT automation process can be linked to the incident management to the more effective problem management.IT automation let you to quickly react to the alert and trigger according to the action. For example software application can be checked by checking the server status, network status, application build status, and then database status and relocate to the cogent page for the slow productivity and alert, the record is noticed and repaired. If it is necessary the automation process is restarted for triggering. the data is redirected to the server due to insufficient of memory in the server or application issues. Perform data analysis for the input and output. 6. Capture instance determination review paths and generate procedure documentation It automation process create automatically a value according to the automation alert and incident resolving, due to this there will an increase in uptime and let them to focus on the strategic issues. It automation process also capture each and every information automatically for each step of flow. This information is secure and store in the database for the automation product. Automation process automatically create documentation from the automation flow. Each and every flow of step is described in the new created documentation from the created flow. As a result automation documentation is referred to save the time instead of manual document. In this document each and every step is clearly mentioned from alert triggered to the resolution 7. Incorporate role-based contact mechanism into our event determination procedure Many of the IT industry more struggle for exchange of information between2-3 level support. This exchange of information occurred in the middle of night without observing the capabilities of the current state of system If this is properly implemented, the following features in observed automatically: Role-based access control Capture of input and output data Role based access control is used to capture input, output data.so that automation workflow is done automatically as it is atomized as we discussed in the previously Automation process require credentials for the smooth flow of automation steps. Aping is required according to the credentials of the administrator service of proper credentials When this two features are used together as a result in fewer and more escalations. Automation escalation flows only when the frontline operator does not have a proper permissions or when it requires experts operators interest this are more easy as 2-3 level operators can be determined. 8. Capture structural information in a practical and supportable mode Each and every IT organizations is having a very big challenge to other IT industry in all the fields of business in a continue manner. The talent of IT is rated to the uncompleted document and outdated.so IT Organization completely rely on knowledge produced to the incident happened. When the professionals leave the industry they take away the core knowledge with them and leave the Organization to struggle the alerts. With the help of IT process automation, IT process and procedures are implied as automation flows. These flows are managed as current as they constantly execute repair actions. In IT automation process two way of communication is possible with the CMDB it is used to help to create record, discover changes and updated automatically in the infrastructure in this IT processor change automatically. 9. Systematized maintenance processes Automatic trigger should happen at a particular time or at any periodically interval of time. In addition to this key value pair should be matched to trigger the action. This process of trigger action is a time consuming action in manual process, so automation process is better to apply. Action and task are pre-loaded in the system to generate the ticket and resolve automatically Some are the best examples which suit this action: Shutdown, start, restart are scheduled action. Change of password for the security purpose at a regular interval of time Rebooting and configuring setting at a particular service time Refreshing of data at a scheduled time. Due to this intermittently action. You can atomize the section in IT industry as IT automation process. It is executed according to the workflow defined in the process We can trace back the situation happened which is used to generate the report to the operator. This process helps to growth of Organization in the critical scenario of business. 10. Incorporate distinct systems management implements and procedures Management system product is a mixer of partially deployed, and most of them are not well integrated worth the other network system products. Most of the industry runs on Non-homogeneous management products through multiple vendors. In this process IT industry need the support to maintain large size of data center and multiple network operator centers. It also needs the support of the heterogeneous enterprise to their system product. Due to the large size of data centers and network operators, system management product maintained large integrated business enterprise to automate the It process. The combination of management product and process integration leads to the efficient growth and proactive IT organization Conclusion The beginning is very easy. Now you can start up your Automation of data center operations by implementing IT process automation. In few key areas more focus to be applied, a related experienced in IT industry can efficiently achieve to retain the investment and reduce the industry complexity. This can reduce the investment. This also provide more security to the data Bibliography Books: Marshall, C. (2008) The Executive Guide To IT Process Automation: Opalis. Andrzej, C., Abdelsala, H., Marek, R. (1998) Workflow and Process Automation Concepts and Technology : Kluwer Academic Bruno, V., Thecle, A.(1998) Advanced in Production Management System : Springer Paul, H. (2001) Business Process Change A Manager’s Guide to Improving Redesigning and Automation Processes : Edward Wade Arthut, H., Wil, M., Michel, A., Russell, N. (1998) Modern Business Process Automation : Springer – Verlag Berlin Sanjay, M. (2009) Business Process Automation: PHI Learning Ltd Helmut, R., Norbert, P., Wolfgang, S.( (2012) ISSE 2012 Securing Electronic Business Processes : Springer Vieweg Singh, S.K. (2003) Industrial Instrumentation and Control : Tata McGraw Journal Richard, H. (2005) ‘Intellectual Preperty Key Processes for Managing Patent Automation Strategy Need Strengthening’, Report to Congress Committee, 9(1), pp. 22-34 Russell, R. (2001) ‘Reengineering Business Processes Can Improve Efficiency of State Department License Reviews’, Report to the Chairman and Ranking Minority Member US, pp. 10-17 Newspaper Article Naren, K. (2010) ‘ Role of Automation in the Indian IT Industry’, Deccan Chronicle, 30 May, p.11 Website https://www.netiq.com/products/aegis/ http://www.networkautomation.com/overview/ http://blogs.technet.com/b/servicemanager/archive/2009/12/17/demo-extending-service-manager-to-automate-it-processes.aspx http://www.sap.com/solution/lob/it/software/it-process-automation/index.html http://www.computerweekly.com/guides/A-guide-to-business-process-automation-software http://www.slideshare.net/Ayehu/it-processautomationsurvivalguidefreeebook http://kissflow.com/process_playbook/5-reasons-why-you-should-automate-your-business-process/ Terrorism: Definitions, origins, responses and interventions. Terrorism: Definitions, origins, responses and interventions. Chapter One: Defining Terrorism Part One What is Terrorism The Etymology of Terrorism The etymological meaning of the English world terrorism was first adopted in medieval Britain but was first coined in medieval France from the Latin word terrere meaning to frighten (Jeffery 2006: 24). The suffix of ism on the end of the word terror can be constructed as a systematic activity aiming to promote and advance a certain ideological stance. For instance, Marxism argues society can, and will, change when the material conditions are in place to precipitate this change (Marx and Engels 1848: 27). Therefore, because Marxs belief promotes a certain branch of communist philosophy the suffix ism is used to establish his particular ideological viewpoint. Conversely, if one chooses to ignore the political connotation associated with the phrase terrorism, the etymology of terrorism, one could say, is to simply promote the systematic advancement of fear. For example, the parents of a child may simply choose to apply the metaphor of terrorist to personify their expression that their c hild annoy so frequently and unexpectedly that one fears what could come next. Further to this, the etymology of terrorism brings fourth two observations. Firstly, terrorisms rooted meaning has undergone a transformation (the historical context of terrorism will be highlighted later in chapter two, but I will give you a brief outline). Terrorism was first used within the latter part of the ninetieth century as a regime or system of governance, wielded to establish a revolutionary State against the enemies of the people (Williamson 2009: 43). Terrorism, in modern society, is now more commonly used to describe terrorist acts committed by non-state or sub-national identities against the State. In 1848, terrorism in Europe and Russia was originated by its exponents as comprising a kind of action against tyrannical States. German radicalist, Karl Henizen, underpinned the policy of terrorism directed at tyrannical States as he argued while murder was forbidden in principle, this prohibition did not apply to politics, and the murder of political leaders might well be a physical necessity (Laqueur 1980: 27). Henizen was therefore, perhaps, the first scholar to provide a doctrine for modern terrorism. Moreover, when Jacobins used the term terrorism to describe their regime during the French Revolution (1789-1794), it had a positive connotation, whereas now most commentators agree that the term terrorism is inherently a negative, pejorative term (Crenshaw 1989, Barker 2002). Thus, it is evident that the term terrorism has undergone a transformation both in meaning and in perception. The second observation one identifies with in relation to the etymology of terrorism is that since its inception, the term terrorism has been linked to various ideals such as justice, liberty and morality. This idealism continued to be attached to terrorism into the mid-1800s, even though a transition had occurred in the meaning of the term (Kravchinsky 1884: 508). These idealistic principles upon the term terrorism continue today. For instance, many modern organisations, considered as terrorist organisations, have chosen for themselves names which suggest that they are idealistic. One example of this is the terrorist organisation Al Qaeda. The term Al Qaeda roughly translates into The Base which suggests a certain level of moral unity among its organisation. Additionally, the perception that exists between how terrorists see themselves and how the way that others, particularly target governments, see them, can be explained by the well-known phrase one mans terrorist is another mans freedom fight (I will explain different societal constructions of terrorism later on in this chapter as a critique towards defining the concept terrorism). This phrase, therefore, represents the idea that terrorism is a political term and therefore has to be noted that the political, ideological and religious objectives, which have been an integral aspect of terrorism since its inception is what differentiates terrorism from mere criminal violence which has no greater criminal goal in mind and which is carried out for instant gratification (Williamson 2009: 45). Thus, whereas Osama bin Laden is deemed as a crazed killer within western society, among the east, especially parts of Pakistan and the Saudi kingdom he is deemed as a martyr (Gupta 2008: 8). And so, because of this, we need to adopt a politically scientific approach in helping to understand the definition of terrorism. Applying Political Science to help Understand the Definition of Terrorism The modern political usage of the phrase terrorism can be traced back to 1795 (Laqueur 2001: 6). It is reported that Edmund Burke was the first person to use the word in English, in order to warn people about what he called those thousand of hell hounds called terrorist (McDowell and Langford 1992: 87). The word first appeared in 1798 in the supplement of the Dictionnaire of the Academie Francaise where it was politically defined as a systeme, regime de la terreur (a system, reign of terror). The entry that first appeared in the Academie Francaise conjures up numerous observations that suggest that the term terrorism is political in nature. Firstly, it is clear that to any native French speaker, in the phrase systeme, regime de la terreur fear and terror play a predominant role. Therefore, in this respect, the definition of the Academie Francaise is to be taken more or less as equivalent to terrorism in its broadest sense which we were previously speaking about. Secondly, the politic al context regime furthers the argument that the term terrorism is inherently political in nature. And finally, there seems to be a hint of another condition embedded within the phrase that was placed in Academie Francaise, namely that most terrorist activity is carried out by non-private individuals (thus systeme). Therefore, presumably, these individuals were, or aspired to become legitimate rulers of a recognised States. Moreover, it appears that the definition of Academie Francaise solely aims to define rebel or revolutionary violence, rather than terrorism in its contemporary sense. However, it has only been within the last thirty-five years that political science has enlightened us on terrorist campaigns, groups, activities, tactics, motives, finances, State support and trends (Enders and Sandler 2006: 9). This comparative approach towards defining terrorism has taught us much about what is common and what is different among terrorist activity. For example, a majority of political scientists have characterised many European terrorist organisations as fighting communist organisations with a focused Marxist-Lenin ideology, an anticapitalist orientation, a desire to limit casualties, and a need for external constituency (Alexander and Pluchinsky 1992: 27). Over the last few decades, political scientists have furthered these comparative approaches towards the definition terrorism in which they have identified the changing nature of terrorism for instance, the rise of State sponsorship in the early 1980s to the more modern increase in Islamic fundamentalism in post modern society. Political scientists have also analysed the effectiveness of antiterrorist policies in helping to define the term terrorism, but without the need to apply social statistics. Further to this, Wilkinson maintains that political science defines the phrase terrorism by dividing its definition into three distinctive typologies, these include; revolutionary terrorism, sub-revolutionary terrorism and repressive terrorism. The first typology defines the phrase terrorism as the use of systematic tactics of terroristic violence with the objective of bringing about political revolution (Wilkinson 1975: 74). Wilkinson furthers the typology of revolutionary terrorism by characterising it into four major attributes; (1) it is always a group, not an individual phenomenon, even though the groups may be very small; (2) both the revolution and the use of terror in its furtherance are always justified by some revolutionary ideology or programme; (3) there exists leaders capable of mobilising people for terrorism and (4) alternative institutional structures are created because the revolutionary movement must partake action in the political system and therefore must develop its own policy-making bodies and codification of behaviour (Wilkinson 1975: 79). To give a more detailed picture of Wilkinsons typology of revolutionary terrorism towards the political definition of terrorism we should add Hutchinsons list of essential properties, these are; (1) it is part of a revolutionary strategy; (2) it is manifested through acts of socially and politically unacceptable violence; (3) there is a pattern of symbolic or representative selection of victims or objects of acts of terrorism and (4) the revolutionary movement deliberately intends these actions to create a psychological effect on specific groups and thereby to change their political behaviour and attitudes (Hutchinson 1978: 18). The second category in Wilkinsons typology to define the political definition of terrorism is sub-revolutionary terrorism. Sub-revolutionary terrorism is defined as terror used for political motives other than revolution or governmental repression (Wilkinson 1975: 81). Whereas revolutionary terrorism seeks total change, Wilkinson argues that sub-revolutionary terrorism is aimed at more limited goals such as forcing the government to change its policy on some issues, warning or punishing specific public officials, or retaliating against government action seen as reprehensible by terrorist (Wilkinson 1975: 82). Therefore, in this respect, under the typology of sub-revolutionary terrorism pressure groups such as Fathers for Justice and Green Peace may be deemed as terrorist organisations. Wilkinsons third typology, repressive terrorism, is defined as the systematic use of terroristic acts of violence for the purpose of suppressing, putting down, quelling, or restraining certain groups, individuals or forms of behaviour deemed to be undesirable by the oppressor (Wilkinson 1975: 83). Therefore, the political definition of terrorism under the typology of repressive terrorism relies heavily upon the services of specialised agencies whose members are trained to torture, murder, and deceive. The terror apparatus is then deployed against specific opposition groups and can be later directed against much wider groups (Wilkinson 1975: 84). One example of this is Nazi Germany, where the Schutzstaffel (SS), the specialised agency, deployed terroristic apparatus against the opposition group, the Jews. Moreover, the main advantage of applying a politically scientific approach to defining terrorism has been its electric, multidisciplinary viewpoint encompassing historical, sociological, and psychological studies. Historical studies identify common features among terrorist campaigns and indicate how the phrase terrorism has evolved over time. In sociological studies, sociologists analyses societal norms and social structure within terrorist organisations. And, by using psychological studies, researchers have identified internal and external variables associated with the escalation of violence in a terrorist event (Enders and Sandler 2006: 10). Furthermore, some factors, for example, may induce an individual to become a suicide bomber, for example, include sociological the approval of a group and psychological factors personal mentality. Thus, certain fields may interlink to accompany political science in helping to define terrorism. Another field that has helped revolutionised the way we perceive the definition of terrorism is law and to illustrate this point one is about to examine the definition of terrorism under general international law. Defining Terrorism under General International Law Recent interest in the utility or propriety of a definition of terrorism under general international law has been driven by larger issues, such as the need to build international solidarity within the war of terrorism, and the opposing need felt by some of guarding any such possible definition of terrorism from any undue weightage likely to be given to the unilateral belief of any one State, and particularly the meaning likely to be or already given to the term terrorism in the foreign policy of any one State (Hor et al 2005: 37). Therefore, the need to define terrorism, comprehensively, under international law cannot be divorced from such over-riding political concerns which, together with some old diplomatic obstacles, continued to plague the negotiations towards the Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism in 2005. The rationale behind such a comprehensive treaty to define the phrase terrorism was a response to calls beginning within the 1990s for a departure from a reg ime of variegated subject-specific treaties. The initiative for such a treaty to define terrorism derived from India (United Nations General Assembly 2005: 166). The treaty established the United Nations General Assembly resolution 51/210 of 17 December 1996, which had established an Ad Hoc Committee together with a United Nations Sixth (Legal) Committee, which was tasked with negotiating on the Draft Comprehensive Convention (Reichard 2002: 18). However, one would like to focus upon the question of whether a customary or general international legal definition of terrorism already exists, and if so, what does a customary definition look like. Legal guidance to define terrorism under general international law lies at least as much in international custom as it does under the Comprehensive Convention of International Terrorism treaty. This is partly due to the time-lag that occurred between the completed text-based treaty and widespread participation that took place within the new treaty regime. Moreover, it is due to the fact that much of the new comprehensive definition was not all that new, thus proving the United Nations are a long way off achieving essential combinations of (1) having a precise formation that would necessarily prove useful in defining terrorism and (2) at the same time, attracting the necessary widespread participation of States to make such a comprehensive regime a success (Lim and Elias 1997: 27). State-sponsored terrorism is a good exemplar over what terrorism might be taken to mean in the eyes of general international law. Professor Brownlie concurs with this statement as he maintains that State-sponsored terrorism is governed mainly, if not exclusively, by the available categories of international legal thought such as the prohibition of the use of force in international relations, the doctrine of imputability in establishing State responsibility for acts of the individual and the self-defence doctrine. He argues there is no category of the law on terrorism and the problems must be characterised in accordance with the applicable sectors of general international law: jurisdiction, international criminal justice, state responsibility, and so forth (Brownlie: 2004: 713). However, this may to true insofar as international law has not yet evolved to encompass an agreed definition of terrorism, the various subject-specific rules of international law which focus on individual criminal responsibility for different acts of terror such as hijacking, terrorist financing, and so on, can neither be insulated from nor absorbed wholly by the currently existing international law rules which may be brought to bear on State-sponsored terrorism. Several States leading up to the Rome statute, for example, viewed terrorism, under international law, as a distinct criminal event which imposes individual criminal responsibility for State-sponsored terrorism. In this respect, the definition of terrorism differs when defining the phrase terrorism under State-sponsored terrorism and from what the definition of terrorism means under the International Court of Justice. For example, in the Nicaragua case, Nicaragua had brought a claim against the United States for alleged covert support given by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to armed insurgents operating in Nicaraguan territory in response to the Sandinista Governments covert support of the Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front in El Salvador. The issue was that there were interstate in international law rules pertaining to breach of the United States legal responses owed to Nicaragua by allegedly financing, supporting, equipping, arming, training and providing strategic guidance to Nicaraguan rebels seeking to overthrow the Sandinista Government (McCoubrey and White 1995: 12). In short, the case of Nicaragua was about defining the phrase terrorism through state responsibility and not solely as a means of political violence. On the other hand, Professor Mani recently suggested that what we call terrorism today is, in fact, very much state-sponsored terrorism. This, he suggests, is a direct result of the prohibition in Article 2(4) of the United Nations Charter of the use of the force in international relations, which would nonetheless attract individual responsibility for such acts. Therefore, the legal definition of terrorism may be seized by the figure of Osama bin Laden, and we may be startled that by the late twentieth century the only superpower in the world was required to go to war with a mere individual, but that does not change the fact that, for the most part, the definition of terrorism is closely linked to state-sponsorship (Murphy 1999: 161). The difference, therefore, between Professor Manis and Professor Brownlies viewponts is one that has marked debate among the social sciences for a number of years. For example, a majority of scholars adopt Brownlies viewpoint that the definition of terrorism, especially State-sponsored terrorism, is solely a product of individual extreme criminality. But we must not ignore Manis argument that the definition of terrorism under State-sponsorship, which has become an ongoing growing phenomenon, and has become a powerful focal-point for advocating the plight of the Palestinian people, for example. Therefore, in a world where we have learnt to view some States as rogue or parish, calling States such as Israel a terrorist State serves to highlight the Palestinian cause, and stigmatise the perceived wrongdoer all at the same time (Jansen 2001: 47). Thus, by defining the phrase terrorism under the use of general international law no one can pinpoint a precise definition of the phrase terrori sm as the word itself is unattainable. To further this discussion one will now begin to highlight the problems associated with defining the phrase terrorism in which one will begin by examining terrorism as a moral problem. Part Two Problems in Defining Terrorism Definition of Terrorism as a Moral Problem A major stumbling block towards defining terrorism is that, at base, terrorism is a moral problem. This is, therefore, one of the major reasons for the difficulty over defining of terrorism. Attempts at defining the phrase terrorism are often predicted on the assumption that some classes of political violence are justifiable whereas others are not. Many would label the latter as terrorism whilst being loathe to condemn the former with a term that is usually used as an epithet. So, in order, for a definition to be universally accepted it must transcend behavioural description to include individual motivation, social milieu, and political purpose (Wardlaw 1989: 4). The same behaviour will or will not, therefore, be viewed as terrorism by any particular observer according to differences in these other factors. However, if the definition is to be of use to a wider audience than the individual who constructs it, students of violence will have to try and divest themselves of the traditiona l ways of its definition. Just as an increasing number of commentators seem to be able to even-handedly apply the term terrorist to non-State and State actors they will have to apply it even-handedly to those groups with whose cause they agree and those with whose cause they conflict (Wardlaw 1989: 4). The difficulty here is, however, is that different groups of users of definitions find it more or less easy to utilise definitions which focus on behaviour and their effects as opposed to these factors tempered by considerations of motives and politics. Thus many academic students of terrorism seem to find it a little difficult in labelling an event as terrorist without making a moral judgement about the act. Furthermore, many politicians, law enforcement and governmental officials, and citizens find themselves unable to take such a detached view (Wardlaw 1985: 4). For this reason, it may not be too difficult to construct an acceptable definition within this given reference group, but the problem arises when each group attempts to engage into dialogue with each other. This communication problem is of more than academic importance. This is because it is one of the root causes of both the vacillations in policy which characterises the response of most individual states to terrorism and of the complete failure of the international community to launch any effective multi-lateral initiatives to combat the problem (Wardlaw 1989: 5). Therefore, those who study terrorism within any given community often cannot communicate with the policy-makers and law enforcers because the latter groups often reject the analytical techniques of the former as being of insufficient relevance to the real world. This is partly due to the latter groups seeing the lack of relevance as an inability to distinguish between right and wrong acts. Moreover, at an international level, political support given to sectional interests militates against a universal definition that could form the basis for international law and action (Wardlaw 1989: 5). Thus, for example, the Palestine Lib eration Organisation (PLO) is seen by some nations as a terrorist group having no political legitimacy and using morally unjustifiable methods of violence to achieve unacceptable ends. Conversely, other nations deem the actions of the PLO as acceptable legitimate representation of opposed people using necessary and justifiable violence (not terrorism, one needs to emphasise) to achieve a just and inevitable end. Therefore, the problem within defining the phrase terrorism rests upon moral justification. However, in order to further illustrate ones argument into the problems of defining terrorism one needs to seek to explain such a phenomenon, and not solely justify the problems in defining terrorism wholly on moral justification. And so, in this respect, we need to assess the identity of terrorism in order to seek the problem of its definition. Difficulties in Defining Terrorism Due to Identification Another factor that deserves to be noted within the process of identifying the problems associated with defining the concept of terrorism is identification. The reasoning for this is down to the fact that identification is key to its rhetorical success. Thus, an act will become to be seen as terrorist if people identify with the victim of the act. One example of this is the role of media in reporting terrorism. To explain, the media tend to portray terrorist acts as newsworthy because it acts as an instrument of legitimation. Other example of this happening are within areas of muggings, environment crime, and white-collar crime. Therefore, if the identification of the terrorist act, in the perpetrators eyes, is positive the implication for official regimes becomes positive. Take State-sponsored terrorism as an example, if such States are industrialised societies than industries are active participating actors within the official terrorist regime. Furthering the example, because State -sponsored terrorism usually involves bureaucracy (police, armed forces, intelligence agencies, secret police, immigration control, and information control) it becomes the administration of terror thus identifying the definition of terrorism as a positive outcome. Moreover, Thornton describes the identification of terrorism as a problem of its definition by suggesting its a process of disorientation, the most characteristic use of terror (Thornton 2002: 86). However, it is important to emphasise that in Thorntons quotation of terrorism he places emphasis on terrorisms extranormal quality. Firstly, one would like to highlight the use of terror in Thorntons quotation is solely placed within the upper levels of the continuum of political agitation and therefore is not representational of terrorism as a whole but only political motivated terrorism. Furthermore, Thornton is placed with the difficulty of defining extranormal a difficulty which is not resolved throughout his argument. One maintains that it would be more productive to seek other ways by which the identification of the definition of terrorism could be more distinguishable from other forms of crime, for example, muggings both of which have the effect of producing State terror in the v ictim. One way terrorism can be distinguishes from other forms of crime is that it has an audience wider than the primary victim, although, the same can be said about muggings. For instance, if a number of muggings take place in certain location, intense fear will be engendered in many other individuals who have cause to be or in the same places. The identifiable feature, that distinguishes terrorism to other forms of crime, therefore, is the design to create anxiety rather than the extranormality of the anxiety, which Thornton discussed. Terrorism is further characterised by its highly symbolic content. Thornton contends that the symbolic nature of terrorism contributes significantly to its relatively high efficacy. Thus; If the terrorist comprehends that he is seeking a demonstration effect, he will attack targets with a maximum symbolic value. The symbols of the State are particularly important, but perhaps even more are those referring to the normative structures and relationships that constitute the supporting framework of society. By showing the weakness of this framework, the insurgents demonstrate not only their own strength and the weakness of the incumbents but also the inability of the society to provide support for its members in a time of crises. (Thornton: 2002: 91) To further the claim that the problem in defining the phrase terrorism is down to identification we must strengthen Thorntons argument by introducing two terrorist approaches, these are enforcement terrorism and agitational terrorism. A Tale of Two Terrorist Approaches Enforcement Terror and Agitational Terror Within Thorntons broad definition of terrorism, he has distinguished two categories of how terrorism can be defined. These are through the uses of enforcement terror and agitational terror within terrorist activities. The first approach, enforcement terror, is used by those in power who wish to annihilate challenges to their authority, and the second approach, agitational terror, describes the terroristic activities of those who wish to disrupt the existing status quo and ascend to political power (Thornton 2002: 117). For instance, Nazi Germany and Stalin Russia can be said to inhabit examples of enforcement terror as each government would use fear tactics such as the murder of their citizens to shock them into not establishing a rebellion. Whereas, it could be argued that some socio-political groups such as the Irish Republic Army (IRA) use agitational terror such as the bombing of public places in order to achieve political power. Similarly, May (1974: 285) also observed a divide into the broad definition of terrorism, he theorises these as; the regime of terror and the siege of terror. The former, May refers to, is terrorism in service of establishing order, while the latter refers to terrorism in service of revolutionary movements. May accedes that the regime of terror is more important of the two but also notes how the siege of terror is also what grips societys attention, as May states revolutionary terrorism, derivative and reflexive though it may be, exposes a level of perception into the universe of killing and being killed that may be even more revealing than state terrorism (May 1974: 290). The argument May puts forth about the regime of terror versus the siege of terror is in fact one of the most interesting puzzles of anyone studying terrorism to come to grips with as most commentators and scholars often focus their attention on the insurgence of terrorism rather than the incumbent nature of terrorism. There are a number of apparent explanations for this. Firstly, one of the hallmarks of insurgence terrorism is that it is dramatic and thus newsworthy. The reason why insurgence terrorism is newsworthy is that it is atypical in nature, it can be addressed stereotypically, and it can be contrasted against a backdrop of normality which is largely overly-typical (Cohen and Young 1981: 52). Thus, when terrorism becomes institutionalised as a form of governance it makes headlines less often simply because it has less news value than a high jacking of an airliner. Another reason for the lack of attention paid toward what May called the regime of terror may be traced back to t he processes of constructing social realities. To explain, the portrayal of official terrorists as rational beings compared to the lunatic and out-of-control nature of the individual terrorist encourages the mass of society to see the threat to their physical and psychic integrity coming from the latter direction (Reddy 1998: 163). Many academics adopt this notion that while states that enforce a regime of terror may be undesirable, the immediate fear from society perhaps mostly from imagery projected into the public persona from the mass media is individual terrorism. It is this component of uncertainly that plays a large part here. For instance, state terrorist activities may be brutal and unjust (Chomsky 2005: 185), but, in general, one knows what activities not to indulge in in order to escape its immediate and person intrusion. Moreover, it also has to be noted that individual terrorism by contrast bears no necessary relation to ones own behaviour. It appears random and dangerous. Here again we hear the echoes of the impact the media has on reporting such events. Furthermore, it must be remembered that many states currently experiencing terrorism are authoritarian states that exert to some extent control over what the news reports. In said cases, therefore, the media can hardly castigate authoritarian go vernments for their excesses thus fearing reprisals such as license cancellation but they can, and do, bring the threat of terrorism by small groups and individuals into the homes of the masses. The view of terrorism therefore is fostered of a society plagued by dangerous extremists damaging the fabric of everyday life and threatening the sate whilst ignoring the greater damage that is being perpetrated as a result of government policies and action plans. However, it is of course much easier to focus greater emphasis on a specific perpetrator than on one amorphous system. There is, therefore, are some sensible practical reasons for the reluctance of scholars studying the phenomenon of state terrorism. For instance, Gloom noted; Historians find it difficult to think themselves into the mores of Robespierres or a Stalins regime of terror and it is dangerous to conduct field research in contemporary regime of terror. It is far easier to conceptualise the use of terror as a weapon to achieve a specific goal rather than a form of a regular and normal government (Gloom 1978: 73) Further to this, the only systematic effort develop general theory of terrorism based on an analysis o

Three Phase Systems

Three Phase Systems Determine the neutral current in the unblanced 4-wire star power system shown in figure1. Express the answer in both complex number and polar forms. Use a simulator to confirm the magnitude of the nuetral current which is eqaluated. Given that, Z1 = 40 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  50 ° Z2 = 10 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  30 ° Z3 = 25 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  60 ° V1 = 230 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  0 ° V2 = 230 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  120 ° V3 = 230 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  240 ° à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ § To Find Neutral Current by Calculation: To find the neutral current, first we have to find I1, I2 and I3 and then add them together to get the neutral current. à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ § To find I1: I1 = I1 = I1 = I1 = (5.75 ) A (Polar Form) Current in Rectangular Form: I1 = (3.69 -j 4.40) A à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ § To find I2: I2 = I2 = I2 = I2 = (23 90) A (Polar Form) Current in Rectangular Form: I2 = (0 +j 23) A à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ § To find I3: I3 = I3 = I3 = I3 = (9.2 180) A (Polar Form) I3 = (-9.2 +j 0) A (Rectangular Form) Now to find neutral current IN, we need to add I1, I2 and I3 IN = I1 + I2 + I3 IN = (3.69 -j 4.40) + (0 +j 23) + (-9.2 +j 0) IN = (3.96 + 0 9.2) +j (-4.40 + 23 + 0) IN = (-5.51 +j 18.6) A (Rectangular Form) IN = 19.39 106.50 A (Polar Form) à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ § Using TINA Simulation: Use the three-wattmeter method on a simulator to determine the total effective power dissipated in Figure1. Confirm this answer by calculation. à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ § Using TINA Simulation: à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ § Total Effective Power Dissipated in Figure1 by Calculation: To find total effective power dissipated, first we have to find P1 eff, P2 effand P3 eff à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ § To find P1 eff : P1 eff P1 eff = cos 50 P1 eff = 850 W à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ § To find P2 eff : P1 eff P2 eff = cos 30 P2 eff = 4581.27 W à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ § To find P3 eff : P1 eff P1 eff = cos 60 P1 eff = 1058 W P total = P1 eff + P2 eff+ P3 eff P total = 850 + 4581.27 + 1058 P total = 6489.27 W If V1 went open circuit, calculate the new value of neutral current for Figure1. if V1 went open or is at fault then I1 will become zero and the neutral current will be the sum of the other two currents I1 and I2 IN = I1 + I2 + I3 V1 went open so, I1 = 0 therefore, IN = 0 + I2 + I3 IN = I2 + I3 IN = (0 +j 23) + (-9.2 +j 0) IN = (0 9.2) + j (23 + 0) IN = (-9.2 + j23) A (Rectangular Form) IN = 24.77 111.80 A (Polar Form) Single-core Three-Phase Double-Wound Transformer Introduction: Transformer is a static device which transfers electrical energy or power between two or more than two circuits using phenomena of Electromagnetic induction. It takes the current of one voltage and converts it into a different voltage. The amount of transferred energy from Primary circuit to the Secondary Circuit is equal, and the losses are ignored. The frequency of the circuits does not change but the voltage and current of each of the individual circuit is changed, it is increased or decreased, unless we use the transformer as a one-to-one isolating transformer. Basically, the transformer perform the function of changing electricity from high to low voltage by making use of the following properties of electricity. Magnetism is always present around in an electric circuit. Magnetic field is always changed by changing the strength or moving the conductor therefore voltage is induced. Voltage is known as the measure of the Force or Pressure that is used to push the electrons around the circuit. Electricity at a higher voltage goes in the transformer and runs through the large number of coils that are wounded around the iron core. As the current is changing, the core magnetism will also be changing. A wire with less coils around the iron core is known as the output wire and the changing magnetism produces current in the wire. When the number of coils are less that means less voltage and more coils means more voltage. Therefore, the voltage is either stepped down or stepped up according to the number of coils in the wire. A common transformer involves a ferromagnetic core which ensures that values of magnetic flux linkage remain high. But there are some factors related to the ferromagnetic materials that are responsible for part of the loss associated with power transfer. These losses are as follows: 1. Core losses: Core losses can be classified as the sum of eddy currents losses and the hysteresis loss. Hysteresis loss: Energy that a magnetic material soaks in cannot be recovered completely. Core of the material is excited by an A.C source, the flux density rises and falls with the magnetic field strength or current which is basically sinusoidal. When the magnetizing current increases the flux density also increases but there comes a point after which if there is any further increase in the current, flux density is saturated. If the current is reduced from the saturation point to zero, flux density will start to decrease. When the value of the current reaches upto zero the flux density should also become zero but it does not become equal to zero. Some of the flux density will still be present in the material for the zero current, which is called as a residual magnetic flux. Thus, the total amount of energy used to magnetize the material cannot be recovered back and this energy is trapped within the material core and is dissipated as a form of heat. Area of B/H curve gives the hysteresis loss, larger the loop the greater the energy required to create the magnetic field. Eddy current losses: If a coil is wrapped around a core made up of some material and an A.C source is applied to circuit, eddy current losses take place. As the supply to the coil is changing or alternating which produces an alternating flux in the coil. The varying flux in the core induces e.m.f in the core material due to which eddy currents start to flowing in the core material. Therefore, the energy is lost or dissipated in the form of heat because of eddy currents. The laminations in the core can reduce the eddy current losses. Thin sheet steels which are separated from each other must be used because these insulated sheets reduce the amount of the current flow and hence the eddy current losses. 2. Copper losses: Copper loss occurs when the transformer is loaded, the input power is dissipated as heat in the primary and secondary windings of the transformer because these windings have internal resistance. When the load is low, the amount of heat produced is small but at high loads the amount of heat produced becomes significant. à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ · Construction of Single-core three-phase double wound Transformer: A single-core three-phase double wound transformer consists of three sets of primary and secondary windings, individual set winded on each leg of the core made up of iron. The windings consists of turns made up with the insulated wire. These coils are then mounted on a magnetic core material in such a way that the magnetic flux produced by one coil increases and ensures that the most of the magnetic flux links with the second coil so that mutual induction is being increased. The coils are spaced 120 degrees apart. The transformer is filled with a dielectric oil and thus provide insulation in-between the winding and case. These windings are either connected in star or delta configurations. Delta Connection: Delta system proves excellent for distribution system for short distances. These types of transformers are used in neighbourhood and commercial loads of small magnitude near to the substations. There is one kind of voltage present between the 2 wires in the delta system. This system is shown by a Triangle. The voltage between any two wires will be the same and from each individual point of the Triangle, wire emerges which represents a three phase. Star Connections: For a star connection, voltage of two lines is the same as the voltage on a 3 phase system. In Star connection, each of the windings are made up connecting each individual winding end to end and this point is the star point or neutral point of connection winding. Connection for neutral and 3 phase connections are then taken out of transformer. à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ · Applications of Transformers: Transformers in Electrical Engineering: An electrical engineer may put a transformer in a circuit for many reasons. If the device being powered require higher power than what is available locally or the powered device needs frequency matching, a transformer is placed in such circuits. For example signal and audio transformers are used to couple amplifiers and microphones to the input of the amplifiers. Power Utilities: When driving through a rural area, power polls and overhead power lines can be seen and transformers are placed on these power polls by power utilities. Utility substations make use of transformers to deliver power of certain usable level and quality to consumers and businesses. Power Generation and Distribution: Electrical power is generated at the power station and this electrical energy is then transferred to the consumers through high tension power lines. To distribute the electricity from the power station to the consumer, different transformers are used in stepping up and stepping down the voltage up to the certain level. Commercial use: Every electrical device uses transformer in one way or another. Almost every commercial building has at least three or four large high power transformers in order to provide required voltages to operate overhead lightning system, telephone system, heating, operating electrical equipment in labs and much more. Transformers in home: There are a lot of transformers used in many appliances at our homes that require different voltages for their operation. Electric appliances like dishwasher, washing machine, microwave and fridge require comparatively high voltages between 110 and 240 volts, the devices like laptops and charger mobile phones and MP3 players require relatively low voltages. A laptop charger requires up to 15V while mobile phone charger requires up to 6V and M3 chargers require up to 12V to charge up their batteries. Thus, these appliances have small transformers built in them which convert the domestic supply of 110-240 volts into a low voltage that they require for their operation. à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ · Power Transmission and Distribution System: Three-phase system is used in power transmission because less amount of conductor is used to transmit electrical energy to different places. Three conductors carry 3 alternating currents peak values of which reach at different intervals of time. If a conductor is taken as a reference point, there is a delay of time by one third and two third of a cycle of the current for the remaining two currents. Because of this delay in the available phases, constant power is transferred over each cycle of current. There can or cannot be a neutral wire in three-phase systems. Neutral wire is used to allow a higher voltage while still supporting the appliances operating at lower single phase voltages. As loads can directly be connected between the phases so there is no neutral current wire in high voltage distribution. There are many factors that make three-phase system very desirable and reliable in electric power systems. In a load which is linearly balanced, the phase currents cancel each other and add up to give a zero which also helps in eliminating the neutral wire. Phase conductor carry same amount of current which means that they all can have a same size of conductor for balanced conditions. Moreover, the transfer of power in the system is constant for a linear system, it reduces the vibrations in a system. à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ · Generation: Electricity is generated at the power station at around 10kV by rotating a coil in the magnetic field. In power stations, all the generators are synchronised so that they all produce electricity that oscillates together. For more efficient generation, three windings are used on the generator to produce three-phase electricity. Sources for power generation: For distribution, the following types of resources are available for the generation of the electricity. Conventional Methods: Thermal energy: Thermal energy or the Nuclear energy is used to produce steam for the turbines that drives the rotating AC generators to produce electrical energy. Hydro-electric: Potential of water is stored at a higher altitude and is made passed through the turbines which in turn drive the generators. Non-Conventional Methods: Wind power: Winds blowing at high speeds are used to drive the turbines that are coupled to the rotating AC generators. à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ · Transmission: Transmission has an important role between the production of power and the usage of power. Transmission lines carry high voltage electricity over long distances from power plants to the consumers. Once the power is generated. It is send to the substation in the power plant where the voltage is stepped-up using step up transformer for transmission purposes. When the voltage is stepped up, it helps in the reduction of the transmission losses. It is then sent to the grid station from where it is further transmitted to different cities. Why there is a need to step up the voltage for transmission: For transmission over long distances, transmission lines are made up of conducting materials like aluminium and power loss is always associated with these conducting materials. This is because if the current through the wire is I and the resistance of the wire is R then an amount of electrical power I2R is dissipated as heat. This will result in a much less power at the receiving end than the actual power generated at the station. Thus, when power is transmitted at a high voltage, wires of low current carrying capacity are used so there is no need of thick wires that cost considerably high instead they can be replaced by thin wires that cost less. à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ · Distribution: Substations reduce the voltage of the electricity from the transmission lines. The power grid is connected to the different parts of the country and it distributes the power in different cities through transmission lines. The transmitted power from the power grid is stepped-down to 110,000 volts from 230,000 volts using a step-down auto transformer. Then for the distribution of power for industrial uses, the power is again stepped-down to 11,000 volts from 110.000 volts by step-down transformer located in the streets. This reduction in the voltage increases the current in the wires and thus the losses but greatly reduces the cost of power poles and increases the safety. The distribution substation further reduces the voltage to 230 volts or 440 volts for the local transmission for domestic purposes depending upon the need of the user. Some business and houses require two or three-phase power supply while the others only need single phase supply. à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ · Operation of the transformer: Transformer works on the principle of mutual induction. According to Faradays Law of electromagnetic induction: Rate of change of flux linkage is directly proportion to the induced emf in a conductor or coil with respect to time. When primary winding is connected to a voltage source, an AC flows through it and which produces a continually changing magnetic flux that surrounds the winding. This changing magnetic flux flows to the secondary winding as some flux from primary winding will be linked to the secondary winding. As magnitude and direction of the flux is continually alternating, change of flux takes place in the secondary winding. According to Faradays law of electromagnetic induction, this changing magnetic flux produces an induced electro motive force or simply the voltage in the secondary winding of transformer therefore, a current start to flow if the circuit is closed. The rate at which the flux changes depends upon the amount of the flux which is linked with the secondary winding of the transformer. Therefore, it is important to link all the flux from the primary winding to the secondary winding of the transformer. It can be done by putting a low reluctance path which is usually common to both of the windings and that low reluctance path is known as the core of the transformer. Three-phase Induction Motor Introduction: Electric motor is a device which performs the operation of converting electrical energy into a mechanical energy. The induction motor is known as a three-phase AC motor which is widely used in the industrial applications as they are: Self-starting. Their construction is simple and compact. Less expensive. Require minimum amount of maintenance. More reliable and highly efficient. Additional starting motor is not required and do not required to be synchronised. Induction motor is also known as asynchronous motor. Due to inductive coupling, the generated electromagnetic power is transferred to the secondary winding. These windings are being separated by air gap between them. The induction motor consists of a Stator and a Rotor. The motor frame is permanently attached with windings of very low resistance. When current and voltage is applied to the terminals of Stator windings, a magnetic field is produced. à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ · Applications of three-phase induction motor: Induction motors are most demanded motors in the industry. Some of their applications are given below: Industrial drives make use of 3 phase cage rotor motors because they are pretty simple, efficient and are not costly. Single phase induction motors are used where the load is comparatively smaller. These motors are being